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Making Water OUt of Coal Using Methane

Patrick: Why isn\'t this known. Making water out of coal using methane. Safety of water appears to not be a priority, some cannot be reused, some fossil water. I only read part of this report. Had a hard time doing a copy and paste on this one. Gives the link for the original full report. This is the summary.

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States (Free Summary)

http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12915.html

Free Summary

ISBN: 978-0-309-15432-1, 270 pages, 7 x 10, paperback (2010)

This summary plus thousands more available at www.nap.edu.

Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane

Produced Water in the United States

Committee on Management and Effects of Coalbed

Methane Development and Produced Water in the

Western United States; Committee on Earth Resources;

National Research Council

This free summary is provided by the National Academies as part of our

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

Summary

In some coalbeds, naturally occurring water pressure holds methaneâ?"the main

component of natural gasâ?"fixed to coal surfaces and within the coal. In a coalbed methane

(CBM) well, pumping water from the coalbeds lowers this pressure, facilitating the release of

methane from the coal for extraction and use as an energy source. Water pumped from coalbeds

during this processâ?"CBM â?oproduced waterâ?â?"is managed through some combination of

treatment, disposal, storage, or use, subject to compliance with federal and state regulations.

CBM produced water management can be challenging for regulatory agencies, CBM well

operators, water treatment companies, policy makers, landowners, and the public because of

differences in the quality and quantity of produced water; available infrastructure; costs to treat,

store, and transport produced water; and statesâ?T legal consideration of water and produced water.

Some states consider produced water as waste, whereas others consider it a beneficial byproduct

of methane production. Thus, although current technologies allow CBM produced water to be

treated to any desired water quality, the majority of CBM produced water is presently being

disposed of at least cost rather than put to beneficial use.

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58, Section 1811) noted the relevance of CBM

produced water and directed the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to enter into an agreement

with the National Research Council (NRC) to evaluate CBM produced water management in six

western states. The NRC established the Committee on Management and Effects of Coalbed

Methane Development and Produced Water in the Western United States to develop this report,

which addresses the study charge (Box S.1).

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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2 MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCED WATER

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

BOX S.1

Statement of Task

This study will examine the effects of CBM development and produced water on water and soil

resources in the western states of Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, North Dakota, and Wyoming.

Specifically, the study will:

(1) Briefly review existing and ongoing studies by federal agencies related to CBM produced

water effects and management including water treatment, use, storage, and disposal; environmental

(natural and human) effects; and water quality and quantity.

(2) Identify the major federal and state data resources available for CBM produced water

management including those available for topics in (1), above, and identify the major factors influencing

CBM produced water chemistry and potential toxicity; the baseline data necessary for effective

management of CBM produced water; data gaps, if any, and any additional need for data.

(3) Identify the major positive and negative effects of CBM produced water treatment, use,

storage, and disposal on the quality and quantity of surface and ground water resources, including

environmental effects documented by public and private stakeholders.

(4) Review existing federal and state regulations that address the management and potential

effects of CBM produced water on surface and ground water resources.

(5) Evaluate the effectiveness of current and emerging best management practices and

production techniques for CBM produced water management options in terms of the minimization of

potential negative impacts to water resources.

(6) Discuss the costs for produced water management options, including existing and emerging

techniques used in water treatment, use, storage, and disposal.

When evaluating the effects of CBM development on water resources, relevant geological,

geochemical, hydrological, ecological, environmental, social, and health factors, water rights issues, and

historical and projected CBM production volumes will be considered.

The report specifically examines the Powder River, San Juan, Raton, Piceance, and Uinta

CBM basins in the states of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. The

reportâ?Ts conclusions and recommendations identify:

â?¢ gaps in data and information about the natural variations in CBM produced water

quality and quantity, baseline conditions and the effects of CBM produced water

on the environment, and the degree of connectivity among water-bearing

coalbeds, other groundwater aquifers, and surface water;

â?¢ potential beneficial uses of CBM produced water and costs for various water

treatment, storage, or use strategies;

â?¢ documented and potential effects of CBM produced water on surface and

groundwater resources, soil, and ecological systems and ways in which those

effects could be monitored and mitigated; and

â?¢ challenges in the existing regulatory framework for CBM produced water

management.

Although directed toward CBM basins in the arid West, the report bears on CBM

production and produced water issues in other CBM basins in the United States. To date, no

national consensus has been reached on clearly defined goals, objectives, management positions,

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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SUMMARY 3

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

or policies that take into account potential environmental effects of CBM produced water and

allow for consideration of a range of potential beneficial use options. Resolving these gaps could

increase the ability of public and private stakeholders to develop effective and environmentally

and economically sound CBM development and produced water management strategies and

practices.

NATURAL VARIATIONS IN CBM BASINS

Quality and quantity of CBM produced water, determined largely by the natural geologic

and hydrologic characteristics of each CBM basin, are among the primary factors determining

produced water management strategies and potential and actual effects of produced water on the

environment. The degree of connectivity (â?ohydraulic connectivityâ?) among water-bearing

coalbeds which are the targets of CBM production, overlying and underlying aquifers, other

shallow groundwater aquifers, and surface water is also important. Hydraulic connectivity

affects how water in coalbeds and surrounding sedimentary rocks moves and replenishes through

time and has consequences for the effects of produced water withdrawals. Water that has not

been replenished for a long timeâ?"from human lifetimes to millions of yearsâ?"is termed â?ooldâ? or

â?ofossilâ? water and can be considered a nonrenewable resource.

The coalbeds used for CBM in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana are

generally more porous and permeable and yield relatively fresher produced waters1 than the

more deeply buried, methane-bearing coalbeds in the CBM basins of New Mexico, Colorado,

and Utah. The high porosity and permeability in Powder River coalbeds also require larger

volumes of water to be withdrawn by the CBM well operator to stimulate methane release from

the coal, compared to the other western CBM basins. Large volumes of relatively fresh CBM

produced water from the Powder River Basin are then primarily managed through discharge to

surface storage impoundments or to ephemeral and perennial streams and rivers, with or without

treatment to meet regulatory requirements. A limited amount of produced water is put to

beneficial use. In contrast, smaller volumes of generally very saline CBM produced waters from

basins in New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah are primarily managed through disposal by deep-well

reinjection.

A suite of geological, geophysical, and geochemical data which includes â?oage datingâ? of

CBM produced water is needed to establish the degree of hydraulic connectivity between CBM

production targets, other groundwater aquifers, and surface waters. These types of data have

been collected and analyzed from the San Juan Basin and show that CBM produced water from

this basin is fossil water. Similarly comprehensive data to determine whether or not the CBM

produced water from other western CBM basins is fossil water have not been collected.

Lack of knowledge of the age of CBM produced water contributes to uncertainty in

understanding the consequences of long-term produced water withdrawals to other aquifers. At

present, the â?oageâ? of CBM produced water and consideration of fossil CBM produced water as a

nonrenewable resource are not currently factored into decisions about produced water

1 In discussing the chemistry of CBM produced water, the committee sometimes uses the qualifying word

â?orelativelyâ? to denote differences in the total dissolved solids (TDS), salinities, and sodicities of CBM produced

waters as they vary across the western basins. For example, CBM produced water from the Powder River Basin is

sometimes described as â?orelatively fresh,â? whereas CBM produced water from the San Juan Basin may be described

as having â?orelatively high salinity.â? The report provides the background for the use of these terms.

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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4 MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCED WATER

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

management strategies. Determining the age of CBM produced water and therefore its

â?orenewabilityâ? should be included in the development and implementation of CBM

produced water management regulations.

Groundwater modeling can also be used to characterize some aspects of groundwater

resources, including hydraulic connectivity. However, these models are not able to incorporate

the full range of natural complexities in CBM basins. A combination of sensitivity analysis,

history matching, and multiple lines of calibration is needed to quantify the level of uncertainty

of model predictions and to provide a level of reliability for the model results. The

uncertainties in groundwater modeling results should be explicitly recognized when the

results are used to make produced water management and regulatory decisions.

CBM PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES, COSTS, AND

BENEFICIAL USES

In addition to produced water quality and quantity, other determinants that weigh into the

decision of whether CBM produced water is treated, disposed, stored, or put to beneficial use

include: (1) quality and reliability of sustained produced water supply over time; (2) treatment

costs; (3) proximity of location of produced water to the proposed beneficial use (such as

irrigation); (4) costs and infrastructure for water transport and storage; (5) degree of

compatibility between produced water quality and potential receiving landscapes or water

bodies; (6) availability of suitable storage and disposal sites; and (7) the legal framework for

application of produced water to beneficial uses.

Several treatment technologies with extensive performance history have proven effective

in the western CBM basins. However, in nearly all cases where CBM produced water is treated,

the degree of water treatment is driven by regulatory requirements for disposal or permitted

discharge rather than for the purpose of achieving quality for beneficial use.

Options for disposal and storage include deep-well reinjection, storage in lined or unlined

surface impoundments for evaporation or for percolation into underlying soil, direct discharge to

ephemeral or perennial surface waters, and land-applied water spreading and managed surface

irrigation. Potential beneficial use applications for CBM produced water include livestock and

wildlife watering, subsurface drip irrigation, instream flow augmentation, wetlands

augmentation, and industrial and municipal uses. In concept and on paper, putting CBM

produced water to beneficial use would thus seem to be a desirable and relatively easy objective.

In reality, management or discharge of CBM produced water for the specific purpose of

achieving beneficial use is potentially economically and environmentally burdensome, complex,

and challenging.

The production, handling, management, and disposal of produced water all contribute to

the cost of production of methane from coalbeds, and CBM produced water rarely, if ever,

constitutes an income stream for energy producers. Even where CBM produced water is

intentionally put to beneficial use, the cost of implementation of such use almost universally

exceeds any realized economic gain in the current regulatory and economic climate. These

factors have contributed to a varied range of treatment, disposal, and storage options being

employed in the western CBM basins, and within the same basin in different states, with only a

small proportion of the produced water being put to beneficial use.

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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SUMMARY 5

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF CBM PRODUCED WATER

Concerns about environmental effects associated with CBM production and produced

water management relate primarily to short- and long-term consequences of (1) groundwater

depletion and drawdown associated with water pumping during CBM extraction, and (2) the

disposal, storage, management, and permitted discharge of produced water, which may affect

groundwater and surface water quantity and quality, soil and agricultural development, and

ecological systems.

Groundwater Quantity and Quality

The extent of groundwater drawdown in the coalbeds from which CBM has been

extracted depends on the overall volume of water in the coalbed and hydrogeology of the basin,

the density of CBM wells, the rate of water pumping by the operator, the rate of recharge of the

coalbeds from surrounding sediments and coals, and the length of time pumping takes place.

The time for the CBM-bearing aquifer to return to its original water pressure or level depends

upon the extent of drawdown and the volume of water pumped, porosity and permeability of and

depth to the coalbed, climatic and seasonal conditions, and connectivity to sources of water

recharge.

In the Powder River Basin, drawdown of water levels and hydrostatic heads in coalbed

aquifers has been documented as a result of CBM production. In the Montana portion of the

basin, 65 to 87 percent recovery of coalbed groundwater levels has occurred after CBM

production ceased, although the source of this recharge water remains uncertain. However,

drawdown of water levels in shallow alluvial and water table aquifers has not been measured in

the Powder River Basin as a result of CBM development. The degree to which drawdown in

these Powder River coalbed aquifers might influence other shallow aquifers also remains

unknown, in part due to insufficient data showing connectivity between coalbeds and other

shallow groundwater aquifers. CBM extraction in the San Juan, Raton, Uinta, and Piceance

basins is unlikely to cause lowering of the water table in shallow aquifers due to the great

vertical distance and very limited connectivity between the deep coalbeds and shallow

groundwater systems.

Resource management or regulatory agencies should require or continue to require

collection of baseline groundwater level and quality information for domestic water wells in

advance of new CBM drilling activities to protect well operators and residents. These data

will give a baseline against which future water level and quality measurements can be compared.

In surface impoundments containing CBM produced water, infiltration and percolation of

produced water can dissolve and mobilize preexisting salts or naturally occurring constituents

such as sulfate, selenium, arsenic, manganese, barium, chloride, nitrate, and total dissolved solids

in soils below the impoundments. In the Powder River Basin of Wyoming where impoundments

provide the primary management method for CBM produced water, groundwater monitoring

showed increased levels of total dissolved solids (TDS), selenium, sulfate, chloride, and/or

nitrate downgradient of CBM produced water impoundments in approximately one third of the

impoundments for which monitoring data are collected. The majority of impoundments studied

had no apparent change in groundwater quality and improved water quality was documented

beneath a small fraction of the impoundments.

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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6 MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCED WATER

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

The differences among individual impoundments including (1) the substrate (soil or

bedrock) on which the impoundment is constructed; (2) the volume of the impoundment and

produced water entering the impoundment over time; (3) the transport path of the produced water

to the impoundment (whether through a pipe or over land); (4) the length of time the water is in

the impoundment; and (5) the local climate, influence how produced water may affect the

groundwater beneath the impoundment. A groundwater monitoring network and the capacity to

maintain and analyze results from such a network are considered important for use and

management of CBM produced water impoundments that are used for more than temporary

storage. Groundwater monitoring downgradient of impoundments used for disposal of

CBM produced water before, during, and after water storage in the impoundments should

be conducted. The data from these installations should be enhanced with (1) data on the

volumes and chemistry of water discharged into impoundments, and (2) evaluation of the

effects of impoundment infiltration or seepage on downgradient groundwater and nearby

surface water.

Surface Water Quantity and Quality

At present, little evidence exists to show that surface water has been depleted by pumping

water during CBM production at the large watershed scale in the San Juan or the Powder River

basins. Managed discharge of CBM produced water to ephemeral and perennial streams and

rivers otherwise occurs only in the Powder River Basin (Wyoming and Montana) and the

Colorado portion of the Raton Basin. However, too few data exist to evaluate positive or

negative effects to increased water flows in streams and rivers in these basins as a result of these

discharges.

Physical effects to ephemeral or perennial streams and rivers, such as bank scouring,

increased bottom sedimentation, or channel erosion due to unmanaged and/or unregulated CBM

produced water discharge have occurred in the Powder River and the Raton basins. Regulatory

authorities have required operators to control and discontinue practices or events contributing to

these circumstances, and the committee supports all efforts to prevent unmanaged and

unregulated releases of CBM produced water. Although little published evidence exists of any

widespread effects of dynamic alteration in ephemeral stream channels due to regulated,

controlled, and managed CBM produced water discharges, regulated (managed and

controlled) releases to perennial and ephemeral streams and rivers and directly to the

landscape should be accompanied by pre-release monitoring of landscape features,

including stream channels. Regular monitoring of the same landscapes is necessary after

releases have commenced.

Measurements of the effects of CBM produced water discharges on the chemistry of a

receiving stream can be used to regulate the discharge quantity and quality, if needed, to comply

with permit requirements and predict anticipated needs for treatment, disposal, management and

use of produced water. Measurements of the effects of CBM produced water discharges on

receiving stream quality and quantity should be continued and rigorously used in setting

regulatory requirements and permit limits by the appropriate state and federal authorities.

However, actual volumes of water being produced at CBM outfalls at most sites vary as a normal

function of CBM well operations; produced water volume and chemistry data at outfalls are

either infrequently collected, or not readily known or reported in an easily-accessible database.

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SUMMARY 7

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

In monitoring compliance, in modifying discharge allowances and permitted

conditions, and in setting regulatory requirements, measurement of CBM produced water

volumes and chemistry at outfalls should be collected regularly and used rigorously. Such

data should be maintained and made publicly accessible as a collaborative endeavor among

industry, and state and federal authorities.

To date, studies conducted on the effects of CBM produced water discharge on perennial

stream water quality, which usually have only included measurements of total dissolved solids

and sodium concentrations, yield equivocal results and these measurements may not be the best

way to determine the influence of CBM produced water on receiving water bodies. Published

research using isotope ratios of solutes in CBM produced water has shown that isotopic

â?ofingerprintsâ? of CBM water in receiving streams and rivers have changed as a result of CBM

produced water discharge and may be more effective in monitoring and assessing CBM

produced water influence on surface water and groundwater resources. An array of chemical

parameters, including major, minor, and trace constituents and isotopes, should be used to

evaluate the potential effects of CBM discharges on stream water quality.

Soil Quality and Agricultural Applications

Use of some CBM produced water for local irrigation in the Powder River Basin appears

practical given appropriate conditions including availability of produced water and use of various

combinations of selective application to nondispersive soils; treatment, dilution or blending of

CBM produced water with other water sources; amendment of produced water and soils to be

irrigated; and appropriate timing of irrigation practices. However, application of CBM produced

water to some soils in the basin has altered plant ecology and resulted in adverse soil ecological,

chemical, and hydrologic consequences particularly with respect to the influence of sodium in

CBM produced water on soils and plants. In circumstances where CBM produced water is

applied to soils, and also after use of CBM produced water ceases, additional soil management

may be required to restore agricultural soil resources and impoundment sites to conditions that

existed prior to CBM produced water application.

The degree of soil management required with application of CBM produced water is

dependent on a number of factors â?" variable to the site and circumstances. The two most

significant factors are the soil type and the quality of the CBM produced water, especially with

respect to the sodium content. Considering that irrigation with CBM produced water containing

relatively low total dissolved solids and constituent concentrations (such as the water sourced

from the Powder River Basin and the Colorado portion of the Raton Basin) continues to be a

contentious and challenging issue, CBM water sourced from some of the other western basins is

unlikely to be suitable for irrigation without significant treatment.

Ecological Effects

A number of controlled laboratory and modeling efforts have been published that

examined the potential effects of CBM produced water on some aquatic organisms. Laboratory

studies indicate that exposure to elevated concentrations of total dissolved solids, bicarbonate,

potassium, magnesium, chloride, and/or sulfate constituents that may occur in CBM produced

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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8 MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCED WATER

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

water can be toxic to some freshwater organisms. Most laboratory comparisons are based on

mean concentrations of discharges of CBM produced waters and on direct and prolonged

exposure of conventional laboratory test species to undiluted, untreated CBM produced water or

its constituents.

To date, widespread adverse effects on indigenous organisms and vegetation as a result of

changes in surface water chemistry due to CBM produced water discharges in the field have not

been widely studied or demonstrated. A few field tests conducted in the Powder River Basin

showed mortality to some species when levels of bicarbonate exceeded the thresholds established

in laboratory tests, while two other field studies noted difficulty in identifying any direct effects

of CBM discharges on fish assemblages. Studies to evaluate the extent and persistence of

changes in water chemistry and ecological effects on indigenous species and hydrological

systems in the field, including perennial riparian vegetation, stream hydrological function,

stream channel geomorphology, macro-invertebrates, nutrient loading, and fisheries,

should be conducted. The results should be used as input to review and enhance, as

needed, CBM produced water management, treatment, and disposal requirements.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR CBM PRODUCED WATER MANAGEMENT

At the federal level, the requirements associated with leasing and permitting CBM

operations on federally managed public lands through the BLM and the protection of water

resources under the jurisdiction of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are relatively

broad but clear. State regulations regarding treatment and management of CBM produced water

differ among the states examined in this study, as do the degrees to which the states have been

delegated primacy by federal agencies for permitting and regulating management of CBM

produced water. Recognizing the jurisdiction of Indian tribes in regulating CBM development

and in CBM produced water management is also important. Surface water discharges of

produced water on federal, state, tribal, and private lands is typically managed by state or tribal

primacy programs under the Clean Water Act, while discharges to the subsurface environment,

including deep-well reinjection and subsurface drip irrigation, are typically managed under the

Safe Drinking Water Act by state or tribal primacy programs.

At present, a challenge to the effective management of produced water is the

inconsistency in the regulatory consideration and legal description of CBM produced water as a

waste or as a resource and the inconsistent definition of terms such as â?obeneficial use.â? CBM

produced water volumes change over time and eventually decrease to near zero as CBM fields

mature, making sustainability of the water resource an issue to consider for beneficial use

opportunities. The committee concludes that management of CBM produced water is presently

driven by the economics of disposal and treatment costs and regulations rather than consideration

of its possible beneficial use.

Given that produced water can be treated to any water quality with current technologies,

but at varying costs, future regulation of CBM produced water management should consider

the age of the CBM produced water. Careful management of non-renewable â?ofossilâ? water

should be considered a priority. Management of a water resource that is indeed irreplaceable

may benefit from considering opportunities to put it to best use or to store it in aquifers for future

use, rather than to dispose of it. Current regulations and water law do not provide incentives to

CBM operating companies (or other stakeholders) to put produced water to beneficial use or

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SUMMARY 9

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

offer many options to consider other than to dispose of nonrenewable CBM produced water.

Although a number of recent court reviews of CBM production activities do signal some

recognition of the fact that water resources naturally traverse state, legal, and geological

boundaries, these reviews have not provided clarification about effective produced water

management and instead exemplify state-specific approaches.

CLOSING REMARKS

The coupled demands for domestic energy and clean water resources require the

environmentally and economically sound management of produced water from CBM activities.

The most important aspect of this issue is the science surrounding the use or disposal of CBM

produced water. Multiple potential users and uses of limited water resources, a concern by the

public for protection of these limited resources, the complexities of hydrogeological systems, and

the renewability or nonrenewability of water resources require increasingly sophisticated

approaches to understanding CBM produced water and produced water management. These

approaches require a basis in scientifically grounded studies and consistent monitoring, and

should allow for a greater range of economically and environmentally viable options for CBM

produced water management in the future.

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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10 MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCED WATER

Prepublication Version â?" Subject to Further Editorial Revision

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Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Produced Water in the United States

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MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED

METHANE PRODUCED WATER IN THE WESTERN

UNITED STATES

PREPUBLICATION VERSION

Committee on Management and Effects of Coalbed Methane Development and Produced Water

in the Western United States

Committee on Earth Resources

Board on Earth Sciences and Resources

Water Science and Technology Board

Division on Earth and Life Studies

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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS â?¢ 500 Fifth Street, N.W. â?¢ Washington, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of

the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National

Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The

members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences

and with regard for appropriate balance.

The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations contained in this document are those

of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Office of Surface Mining. Mention

of trade names or commercial products does not constitute their endorsement by the U.S.

government. Supported by the Department of the Energy, under Award No. XXXXX.

International Standard Book Number (ISBN) 0-309-0XXXX-X

Library of Congress Control Number 97-XXXXX

Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street,

N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the

Washington metropolitan area); Internet http://www.nap.edu

Cover: The images of natural gas and water illustrate the need to consider management of

two resources important to the United States and particularly to the arid West. Cover

design by

Printed in the United States of America.

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iii

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the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal

government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and

education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to

associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academyâ?Ts purposes of

furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with

general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating

agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in

providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities.

The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J.

Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research

Council.

www.national-academies.org

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COMMITTEE ON MANAGEMENT AND EFFECTS OF COALBED

METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCED WATER IN THE

WESTERN UNITED STATES

WILLIAM L. FISHER (Chair), University of Texas, Austin

JAMES W. BAUDER, Montana State University, Bozeman

WILLIAM H. CLEMENTS, Colorado State University, Fort Collins

INEZ HUA, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

ANN S. MAEST, Stratus Consulting, Boulder, Colorado

ARTHUR W. RAY, Wiley Environmental Strategies, Columbia, Maryland

W. C. â?oRUSTYâ? RIESE, BP America, Inc., Katy, Texas

DONALD I. SIEGEL, Syracuse University, New York

GEOFFREY THYNE, University of Wyoming, Laramie

National Research Council Staff

ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Study Director

STEPHANIE E. JOHNSON, Senior Program Officer

COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate

JASON R. ORTEGO, Research Associate (from November 1, 2009)

NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Research Associate (until October 31, 2009)

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COMMITTEE ON EARTH RESOURCES

CLAYTON R. NICHOLS (Chair), Department of Energy, Idaho Operations Office (Retired),

Ocean Park, Washington

JAMES A. BRIERLEY, Brierley Consultancy LLC, Highlands Ranch, Colorado

WILLIAM S. CONDIT, Independent Consultant, Santa Fe, New Mexico

ELAINE T. CULLEN, The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Spokane

Research Laboratory (Retired), Chattaroy, Washington

GONZALO ENCISO, Oil and Gas Exploration Consultant, Houston, Texas

MICHELLE MICHOT FOSS, University of Texas, Austin

DONALD JUCKETT, American Association of Petroleum Geologists (Retired), Springfield,

Virginia

ANN S. MAEST, Stratus Consulting, Boulder, Colorado

LELAND L. MINK, U.S. Department of Energy Geothermal Program (Retired), Worley, Idaho

MARY M. POULTON, University of Arizona, Tucson

NORMAN H. SLEEP, Stanford University, Stanford, California

RICHARD J. SWEIGARD, University of Kentucky, Lexington

National Research Council Staff

ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Senior Program Officer

ERIC EDKIN, Program Associate

NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Research Associate

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BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES

CORALE L. BRIERLEY (Chair), Brierley Consultancy, LLC, Highlands Ranch, Colorado

KEITH C. CLARKE, University of California, Santa Barbara

DAVID J. COWEN, University of South Carolina, Columbia

WILLIAM E. DIETRICH, University of California, Berkeley

ROGER M. DOWNS, Pennsylvania State University, University Park

JEFF DOZIER, University of California, Santa Barbara

KATHERINE H. FREEMAN, Pennsylvania State University, University Park

WILLIAM L. GRAF, University of South Carolina, Columbia

RUSSELL J. HEMLEY, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.

MURRAY W. HITZMAN, Colorado School of Mines, Golden

EDWARD KAVAZANJIAN, JR., Arizona State University, Tempe

ROBERT B. MCMASTER, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis

CLAUDIA INÃ?S MORA, Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico

BRIJ M. MOUDGIL, University of Florida, Gainesville

CLAYTON R. NICHOLS, Department of Energy, Idaho Operations Office (Retired), Ocean Park,

Washington

JOAQUIN RUIZ, University of Arizona, Tucson

PETER M. SHEARER, University of California, San Diego

REGINAL SPILLER, Allied Energy, Houston, Texas

RUSSELL E. STANDS-OVER-BULL, Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Denver, Colorado

TERRY C. WALLACE, JR., Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico

HERMAN B. ZIMMERMAN, National Science Foundation (Retired), Portland, Oregon

National Research Council Staff

ANTHONY R. DE SOUZA, Director

ELIZABETH A. EIDE, Senior Program Officer

DAVID A. FEARY, Senior Program Officer

ANNE M. LINN, Senior Program Officer

SAMMANTHA L. MAGSINO, Program Officer

MARK D. LANGE, Associate Program Officer

LEA A. SHANLEY, Postdoctoral Fellow

JENNIFER T. ESTEP, Financial and Administrative Associate

NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Financial and Research Associate

COURTNEY R. GIBBS, Program Associate

JASON R. ORTEGO, Research Associate

ERIC J. EDKIN, Senior Program Assistant

TONYA E. FONG YEE, Senior Program Assistant

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WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BOARD

CLAIRE WELTY (Chair), University of Maryland, Baltimore County

JOAN EHRENFELD, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey

SIMON GONZALEZ, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City

CHARLES N. NAAS, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

JAMES M. HUGHES, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

THEODORE L. HULLAR, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York

KIMBERLEY L. JONES, Howard University, Washington, D.C.

G. TRACY MEHAN III, The Cadmus Group, Inc., Arlington, Virginia

JAMES K. MITCHELL, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg

DAVID H. MOREAU, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

LEONARD SHABMAN, Resources for the Future, Washington, D.C.

DONALD I. SIEGEL, Syracuse University, New York

SOROOSH SOROOSHIAN, University of California, Irvine

HAME M. WATT, Independent Consultant, Washington, D.C.

JAMES L. WESCOAT, JR., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

GARRET P. WESTERHOFF, Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., White Plains, New York

National Research Council Staff

STEPHEN D. PARKER, Director

JEFFREY W. JACOBS, Scholar

LAURA J. EHLERS, Senior Staff Officer

STEPHANIE E. JOHNSON, Senior Staff Officer

LAURA J. HELSABECK, Associate Staff Officer

M. JEANNE AQUILINO, Financial and Administrative Associate

ANITA A. HALL, Senior Program Associate

ELLEN A. DEGUZMAN, Research Associate

MICHAEL STOEVER, Senior Program Assistant

STEPHEN RUSSELL, Program Assistant

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PREFACE

The committee has approached this congressionally mandated task to examine the

management of coalbed methane (CBM) produced water in six western states within a national

context of increasing demand to develop domestic energy resources in environmentally and

economically viable ways. The production of CBM for use as an energy source requires pumping

water from coalbeds to release methane from the coal surfaces. The CBM â?oproduced waterâ? that

results from this pumping process is managed through treatment, storage, disposal, and/or use,

under a complex set of federal and state regulations.

Although produced water and its management are common to the majority of oil and gas

production activities, CBM produced water has been the subject of specific, recent attention for

several reasons: (1) the CBM industry is relatively youngâ?"with most operations in the western

United States only in existence since the 1990sâ?"and development has been rapid in several

regions; (2) the length of time to observe and understand potential effects on the environment

from CBM produced water has been correspondingly brief; (3) the relatively low salinity of some

CBM produced water has allowed consideration of this water for various practical uses in the arid

West; and (4) litigation within and among states, citizens, and industry sharing CBM basins and

watersheds has resulted from differing approaches to CBM produced water management.

To address the study, the committee reviewed documents produced by federal and state

agencies and consultants, peer-reviewed literature, online databases and resources, and

information requested from and submitted by external sources, including three public meetings

and six public teleconferences. The committee held its public meetings in Washington, D.C.;

Denver, Colorado; and Santa Fe, New Mexico. Each public meeting included dialogue with the

study sponsor, the Bureau of Land Management, other federal and state agencies, academic and

national laboratory researchers, and industry representatives who addressed various points of the

committeeâ?Ts study charge. An opportunity for public input was provided at the committee

meeting in Denver.

The committee was sensitive to the interest in understanding the effects of CBM

produced water on the environment when it is treated and released for disposal or might be used

for any beneficial purposes. The committee was thus conscientious in its efforts to identify and

distinguish between scientifically and technically documented effects of CBM produced water on

the environment; those effects that may be considered â?opotentialâ? effects through laboratory

studies, for example, but without field documentation; and reports of effects that do not yet have

enough supporting data or independent analysis to determine cause. In a comparable way,

hydraulic fracturing was not a specific item the committee was tasked to address but was a topic

raised to the committeeâ?Ts attention during the course of this study. Hydraulic fracturing uses fluid

injection to stimulate oil and gas production in many oil and gas wells but is employed rarely, or

not at all, in CBM operations where coal seams are relatively near to the surface and have

correspondingly high initial water contents. Without a direct link between hydraulic fracturing

and the largest volumes of CBM produced water that are managed in the West, the committee

addressed hydraulic fracturing only briefly in the report.

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Throughout its examination of CBM produced water management, the committee has

assumed that operators, regulatory agencies, water treatment companies, and private citizens alike

use appropriate and professional procedures in their operations and in their management of

produced water. The committee has thus focused its efforts on ways in which the current

regulatory, legal, environmental, energy, and economic framework functions with respect to

management of produced water from CBM operations and how this framework could be

supported and improved. Nonetheless, in some instances data and information have demonstrated

that â?obest practicesâ? have not been followed in the management of CBM produced water and the

committee has noted the situations which came to our attention.

As demands continue to couple energy resource development with environmental

stewardship, demands for water resources and effective management of water for multiple uses

will likewise continue to grow. In this context, an examination of CBM produced water

management is timely, and the committee hopes this report informs the decision-making process

with respect to important energy and water resources.

William Fisher

Chair

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to its own expertise, the committee relied on input from numerous external

professionals and members of the public with extensive experience in various aspects of coalbed methane

development and produced water management. All of these individuals provided presentations, data,

analyses, and illustrative figures and images which assisted the committee in understanding the scope of

the issue and the roles played by federal, state, and tribal governments and agencies, the private sector,

non-governmental organizations, research organizations, and the public. This information was very

important to the committee in formulating the report. We gratefully acknowledge these individuals, and

note particularly their prompt and thorough responses to our inquiries throughout the studyâ?Ts course. In

particular, the committee would like to thank the following individuals: Troy Bauder, Doug Beagle,

Diedre Boysen, John Boysen, Curtis Brown, David Brown, James Burd, AÃ¯da Farag, Mark Fesmire, Don

Fischer, Carol Frost, Carey Johnston, James Keener, David Mankiewicz, Vince Matthews, Elizabeth

Meredith, Terrance Olson, Kevin Rein, Ashley Roberts, Kathy Shreve, Timothy Spisak, Carrie Steinhorst,

David Stewart, Jason Thomas, Ralf Topper, John Veil, John Wheaton, and Michael Wireman.

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives

and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Councilâ?Ts

(NRC) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and

critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to

ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the

study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of

the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review

of this report:

David Burnett, Texas A&M University, College Station

Debra L. Donahue, University of Wyoming, Laramie

JÃ¶rg E. Drewes, Colorado School of Mines, Golden

Gretchen K. Hoffman, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Socorro

Lawrence Y.C. Leong, Kennedy/Jenks Consultants, Irvine, California

Thomas Meixner, University of Arizona, Tucson

Dianne R. Nielson, State of Utah, Salt Lake City

Russell E. Stands-Over-Bull, Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Golden, Colorado

George Vance, University of Wyoming, Laramie

John Veil, Argonne National Laboratory, Washington, D.C.

Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they

were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the

report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by William S. Condit, Independent

Consultant, Santa Fe, New Mexico and Michael C. Kavanaugh, Malcom Pirnie, Inc. Emeryville,

California. Appointed by the NRC, they were responsible for making certain that an independent

examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review

comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with

the authoring committee and the institution.

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CONTENTS

SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................ 1

1 METHANE AND WATER IN COALBEDS.................................................................................. 11

National Context for Future CBM Development and Produced Water Management, 12

Report Overview, 15

Concluding Remarks, 16

References, 16

2 COALBED METHANE PRODUCED WATER IN WESTERN U.S. BASINS:

HYDROGEOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS.......................................... 19

Hydrogeological Foundations, 20

Case Studies: Regional Hydrogeology and Hydraulics of the San Juan and Powder River Basins, 37

Geochemical Foundations, 41

Ground- and Surface Water Connectivity and Groundwater Modeling: Data Gaps

and Uncertainties, 46

Chapter Summary, 48

References, 50

3 REGULATORY CONTEXT FOR COALBED METHANE PRODUCED WATER

MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................................................. 55

Water Rights in the United States, 55

Federal Authorities, 59

Western State Authorities, 70

Chapter Summary, 78

References, 79

4 COALBED METHANE PRODUCED WATER MANAGEMENT AND BENEFICIAL

USES ................................................................................................................................................. 83

Options for CBM Produced Water Management, 83

CBM Water as a Beneficial Commodity?, 95

Chapter Summary, 98

References, 99

5 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF COALBED METHANE DEVELOPMENT AND

PRODUCED WATER MANAGEMENT..................................................................................... 103

Groundwater, 103

Surface Water, 113

Soil Quality and Agricultural Production, 123

Ecological Effects, 125

Registered Citizen Complaints, Litigation, and Public Concerns Heard by the Committee, 136

Chapter Summary, 138

References, 142

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CONTENTS

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6 TECHNOLOGIES AND COSTS FOR COALBED METHANE PRODUCED WATER

TREATMENT................................................................................................................................ 149

Primary Treatment Technologies for CBM Produced Water, 150

Treatment and Disposal Costs, 161

Chapter Summary, 163

References, 163

7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................ 167

CBM Produced Water Hydrogeology: The Importance of Establishing Hydraulic

Connectivity, 168

CBM Produced Water Effects on Surface Water and Groundwater Resources and the

Environment, 169

Regulatory Framework, 172

Closing Remarks, 173

APPENDIXES

A Legislative Authorization Language H.R. 6 â?" Energy Policy Act of 2005 Section

1811. Coal Bed Methane Study ...................................................................... â?¦â?¦175

B Committee and Staff Biographical Sketches .......................................................... 177

C Presentations to the Committee .............................................................................. 181

D Information Inventory............................................................................................. 183

E Historical Significance of a Water â?oCompactâ?....................................................... 191

F Tribal Management of Coalbed Methane Development and Produced Water ....... 195

G Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................. 199

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